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Deepening democracy in a fragmented world
(I) Democratic institutions: Democracy can promote equitable development
(II) Human Development Index: At current rates it will take 130 years to rid the world of hunger
(III)India Progress Report: 86.2% of Indians live on $ 2 a day
 This year's Human Development Report (HDR) stresses that politics -- especially the building of strong and deep forms of democratic governance at all levels of society -- is as important to development as economics. Democracies are markedly better at meeting the most pressing social needs of citizens, especially the poor. Democratic participation is a critical end of human development, not just a means of achieving it.
Good governance has been described as the 'missing link' to successful growth and economic reform in developing countries. This means ensuring that institutions and power are structured and distributed in a way that gives a real voice and space to poor people and creates mechanisms through which the powerful -- whether political leaders, corporations or other influential actors -- can be held accountable for their actions. Post-September 11, 2001, especially, leading global powers recognise that a widespread sense of exclusion and powerlessness in developing countries can threaten economic growth and security in industrial countries as well as developing areas. The good news is that the world is more democratic than ever before. But of the 140 countries that hold multiparty elections, only 80 -- with 55 per cent of the world's people -- are fully democratic by one measure. Nearly 106 countries still limit important civil and political freedoms. Developing countries pursued democratisation in the face of massive poverty and pervasive social and economic tensions. But several that took steps towards democracy after 1980 have since returned to more authoritarian rule, as in Pakistan. In 1999 Gallup International's Millennium Survey asked more than 50,000 people in 60 countries if their country was governed by the will of the people. Less than a third of the respondents said yes. And only 1 in 10 said that their government responded to the people's will. Popular disillusionment, the extensive power of the military, police and intelligence services -- not to mention warlords, paramilitary groups and private security companies -- are the problems facing the world's democracies. In the second half of the 20th century 46 elected governments were forcibly overturned by authoritarian rule. When order breaks down in a country, poor people usually suffer first and most. All too often, violence against civilians emanates from forces under government control. A free, independent media is another crucial pillar of democracy. In developing countries, most ordinary citizens have many more sources of information to turn to than they did 10 years ago and less of that information is subject to rigid state control. One hundred and twenty-five countries, with 62 per cent of the world population, have a free or partly-free press. Sixty-one countries, with 38 per cent of the world's population, still do not have a free press. Democratic institutions
At the national level a deepening of democracy requires a focus on strengthening democratic state institutions. Democracy also requires functioning institutions. It requires a legislature that represents the people, an independent judiciary that enforces the rule of law with equal concern for all people, security forces that are professional, politically neutral and serve the needs of people and an accessible, free, independent and unbiased media not controlled by the state or by corporate interests. It requires a vibrant civil society, one that can play a watchdog role on government and interest groups -- and provide alternative forms of political participation. Civil society groups
Though membership has fallen in political parties, trade unions and other traditional vehicles for collective action, there has been an explosion in support for non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other new civil society groups. - In 1914 there were 1,083 international NGOs.
- By 2000 there were more than 37,000 -- nearly one-fifth of them formed in the 1990s.
Most developing countries have seen an even sharper increase in the number of domestic NGOs and non-profits. - More than $7 billion in aid to developing countries now flows through international NGOs, reflecting and supporting a dramatic expansion in the scope and nature of NGO activities.
- More than 2,150 NGOs have consultative status with the UN Economic and Social Council, and 1,550 are associated with the UN Department of Public Information.
- However NGOs still do not have consultative status with the UN Security Council or General Assembly. Only 251 of the 1,550 NGOs associated with the UN Department of Public Information are based in developing countries.
Consumer action is another way for ordinary people to engage in public debates about policy issues -- for instance by boycotting rugs made by child labour or purchasing products that help small coffee growers. The threat of such action can hold corporations accountable. Though the emergence of a global civil society has created opportunities to deepen democracy at the international level, the imbalance in developing country participation is also evident in global civil society movements. Of the 738 NGOs accredited to the World Trade Organisation's (WTO) 1999 ministerial conference in Seattle, Washington, 87% were from industrial countries. Democracy and human development
The links between democracy and human development can be strong -- but they are not automatic. There are good reasons to believe that democracy and growth are compatible. - With just two exceptions, all of the world 's richest countries - those with per capita incomes above $20,000 (in 2000 purchasing power parity) - have the world's most democratic regimes.
- In addition, 42 of the 48 high human development countries are democracies.
This does not mean that there is a causal relationship -- that democracy leads to economic growth or higher income. Indeed, the correlation between democracy and income weakens or disappears when only low-income countries are considered. In fact, the literature finds no causal relationship between democracy and economic performance. But generally, democratic processes are clearly related to three aspects of development. - Democracies are better than authoritarian regimes at managing conflict, because the political space and the institutions that provide for open contests give opponents hope that change is possible without destroying the system.
Though socio-political unrest and handovers of power occur more often in democracies than in dictatorships, they do not disrupt development. Between 1950 and 1990 democracies experienced twice as many riots and demonstrations and three times as many labour strikes. But such events - as well as changes in government - did not slow economic growth in democracies. Under dictatorships they did.
Wars caused greater economic hardship in dictatorships than in democracies. Democracies can mitigate internal conflicts so that they do not develop into political crises and economic turmoil.
- Democracies are better at avoiding catastrophes such as famines and managing sudden downturns that threaten human survival.
- Democracies help spread the word about critical health issues, such as the negative implications for women of a large number of births, the benefits of breastfeeding and the dangers of unprotected sex in the context of HIV/AIDS. In these areas open dialogue and public debate can disseminate information and influence behaviour.
Social injustices are widespread in democratic and authoritarian regimes alike, whether deliberate or otherwise in the allocation of public services or in discrimination against squatters, street children, migrants and other socially marginal groups. Discrimination against ethnic minorities, women, the elderly and others continues even in long-established democracies, as the Commission for Racial Equality recently reported in the United Kingdom. Political incentives to respond to the needs of ordinary people may be offset by incentives to respond to the demands of the powerful or the wealthy. Much is known about how to promote equitable development that benefits poor people. But too often such policies are not adopted because of systematic biases that protect the interests of elites. Around the world, public spending is often skewed in favour of rich people in such critical areas as basic health and education. While democracy can promote equitable development, the goals of democracy and equity should be considered largely independent -- with both requiring dedicated effort and political will. Democracy may not automatically secure equitable social and economic development, but poverty does not prevent democracy from taking root. On the contrary, democracy has intrinsic value for human development because it has strong links to political and civil freedoms and can contribute to social and economic development. History also teaches that democracy, in itself, does not guarantee greater social justice, faster economic growth or increased social and political stability. And in almost every country those links need to be strengthened. The best way to achieve this is by strengthening democratic institutions and promoting democratic politics. Democracy and democratic institutions: India
Subjective indicators of governance Democracy - Polity score (on a scale of -10 to 10) for 2000 was 9, indicating a very good record. (This measure whether laws and institutions allow democratic participation -- but not the extent of political participation. Scores range from -10 [authoritarian] to 10 [democratic].)
- Civil liberties score (on a scale of 7 to 1) in 2000 was 3, indicating that the country is partly free. (Freedom House, an international research organisation designates countries with an average score for civil liberties and political rights between 1 and 2.5 as free, those with a score between 3 and 5 as partly free and those with a score between 6 and 7 as not free.)
- Political rights score (on a scale of 7 to 1) in 2000 was 2, indicating that the country is free.
- Press freedom score (on a scale of 100 to 0) in 2000 was 42; indicating that the country has a press that is partly free. (Freedom House designates countries with a score between 0 and 30 as having a free press, those with a score between 31 and 60 as having a press that is partly free and those with a score between 61 and 100 as having a press that is not free.)
- Voice and accountability score (on a scale -2.50 to 2.50) in 2000-01 was 0.66, where the higher the score the better the country is rated. *
Rule of law and government effectiveness - India's political stability and lack of violence score (on a scale -2.50 to 2.50) in 2000-01 was -0.05, a fairly poor score. *
- Law and order score (on a scale 0 to 6) in 2001 was 4.0, where the higher the score the better the law and order situation.
- The rule of law score (on a scale -2.50 to 2.50) in 2000-01 was 0.23, where the higher the score the better the situation for the country. *
- Government effectiveness score (on a scale -2.50 to 2.50) in 2000-01 was -0.17, indicating a poor record. *
- The Corruptions Perceptions Index (2001) rank of India (on a scale 0 to 10) was 2.7. (Transparency International 's Corruption Perceptions Index ranges from 0 to 10, where the higher is better). The graft (corruption) score (on a scale -2.50 to 2.50) in 2000-01 was -0.39, indicating a very poor record. *
* These indicators, developed in World Bank research, are based on a statistical compilation of perceptions of the quality of governance. The data are from a survey covering a large number of respondents in industrial and developing countries as well as non-governmental organisations, commercial risk rating agencies and think-tanks. The measures in no way reflect the official position of the World Bank, the supplier of the data. The index ranges from around -2.50 to around 2.50 (higher is better). Famine
Democracy helps protect people from economic and political catastrophes such as famines and descents into chaos. Since achieving independence in 1947, India has not had a single famine, even in the face of severe crop failures and massive losses of purchasing power for large segments of the population, as in 1968, 1973,1979 and 1987. Each time the government acted to avoid famine. In India famines were common under colonial rule - for example, two to three million people died in the 1943 Bengal famine. Food production was hit hard during the 1973 drought in Maharashtra. But elected politicians responded with public works programmes for five million people and averted a famine. The Indian judiciary
India's judiciary -- its Supreme Court and state high courts comes -- in for special mention in the report. It has been described as the cornerstone of the country's democracy and has successfully avoided continued encroachments on its independence. In recent years renewed judicial activism has vigorously defended citizens' fundamental rights. It has also safeguarded environmental and other public good. And it has tackled issues of democratic accountability and charges of corruption in the executive. In the 1980s the courts started to hear public interest litigation involving the human rights of poor and powerless people, especially in cases of police brutality and torture, custodial rape and inhuman treatment in jails. The courts also protected such public good as clean air and water and uncontaminated blood supplies. This judicial activism coincided with the rise of civil society organisations and social movements dedicated to social justice and human rights. Legal reforms provided for class action suits on behalf of poor, oppressed and victimised citizens. Panchayati raj (local governments)
Despite democracy's success at the national and state levels, India's constitutionally mandated local governments - the panchayati raj -was dominated by the elites and subverted by central political authority. The 1992 and 1993 constitutional amendments revitalised the panchayats by giving them constitutional status, providing for regular elections and reserving one-third of seats for women and proportional representation for marginalised social groups. This dramatic change brought about popular participation, enabling the marginalised groups to enter political debates. Community involvement in mapping households and identifying children out of school was a major factor in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan (two states with low incomes and some of the country's worst schooling and literacy rates) seeing literacy rates jump 20 percentage points between 1991 and 2001. In addition, enrolment of girls and tribal children increased enormously. Not all panchayati raj institutions have been affected the same way. Political authorities in several states -- Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and West Bengal -- have supported decentralisation through the panchayats and effectively decentralised decision-making to local levels. But in Bihar, the reform has worsened social divisions and violence, further weakening these institutions. The successes of panchayati raj have been most pronounced in states where democratic principles permeate local political parties and other institutions and processes. But where local hierarchies are more deeply entrenched, the reform has made less headway.  (II) Human Development Index: At current rates it will take 130 years to rid the world of hunger
In the Human Development Index (HDI), based on a country's achievements in literacy, per capita income and life expectancy, Norway is ranked number one with Sweden, Canada and Belgium close behind, followed by Australia, and the US at No Six. This year India is ranked 124th among 173 countries. Many developing countries are making progress on several fronts, particularly in achieving universal primary education and gender equality in access to education. But for much of the world the prospects are bleak. Poverty The proportion of the world's people living in extreme poverty fell from 29 per cent in 1990 to 23 per cent in 1999. - During the 1990s extreme poverty was halved in East Asia and the Pacific and fell by seven percentage points in South Asia.
- During the 1990s the number of people in extreme poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa rose from 242 million to 300 million
- Worldwide the number of people living on less than $ 1 a day barely changed in the 1990s. In South Asia the numbers were 495 million in 1990 and 490 million in 1999.
- Fifty-seven countries, with half the world's people, have halved hunger or are on track to do so by 2015. Twenty-four countries are far behind in achieving the target.
- During the 1990s the number of malnourished people declined by just six million people a year. At this rate it would take more than 130 years to rid the world of hunger.
In a globalising world the increasing interconnectedness of nations and peoples has made the differences between them more glaring. - The richest 1 per cent of the world's people receive as much income each year as the poorest 57 per cent.
- The richest 5 per cent of the world's people have incomes 114 times those of the poorest 5 per cent.
- The richest 10 per cent of the US population has an income equal to that of the poorest 43 per cent of the world.
- Among the 73 countries with data (and 80 per cent of the world 's people), 48 have seen inequality increase since the 1950s, 16 have experienced no change and only nine -- with just four per cent of the world 's people -- have seen inequality fall.
Health and sanitation - Every year 60 million people are infected with tuberculosis.
- Current medical technologies can prevent these diseases from being fatal, but lack of access means that tuberculosis kills two million people a year and malaria one million. The poorest people typically suffer most.
- Without much more effective control, by 2020 nearly one billion people will be infected and 35 million will die from tuberculosis.
- By the end of 2000 almost 22 million people had died from AIDS.
- 13 million children had lost their mother or both parents to the disease.
- More than 40 million people were living with HIV. Of those, 90 per cent were in developing countries and 75 per cent were in Sub-Saharan Africa.
- Every year about 11 million children die of preventable causes, often for want of simple and easily provided improvements in nutrition, sanitation and maternal health and education.
- After soaring in the 1980s, immunisations in developing countries levelled off at about 75 per cent in the 1990s.
- Between 1970 and 2000 the under-five mortality rate worldwide fell from 96 to 56 per 1,000 live births.
- In 50 countries with almost 40 per cent of the world's people, more than one-fifth of children under the age of five are underweight. That 17 of those countries are in the medium human development category underscores hunger's pervasiveness. The problem is worst among the world's poorest countries.
- Every year more than 500,000 women die as a result of pregnancy and childbirth, with huge regional disparities.
- The situation is worst in Sub-Saharan Africa, where a woman has a 1 in 13 chance of dying in pregnancy or childbirth.
- As few as 29 per cent of births are attended by skilled personnel in South Asia and 37 per cent in Sub-Saharan Africa.
- In 2000,1.1 billion people lacked access to safe water, and 2.4 billion did not have access to any form of improved sanitation services.
- About four billion cases of diarrhoea occur each year, leading to 2.2 million deaths, predominantly among children -- representing 15 per cent of child deaths in developing countries.
- Other concerns include intestinal worms, which infect about 10 per cent of people in the developing world, and trachoma, which has left six million people blind and another 500 million at risk.
- 800 million more people now have access to improved water than in 1990, and 750 million more to improved sanitation.
Gender - In 10 countries more than 30 per cent of parliamentarians are women. Worldwide, only 14 per cent of parliamentarians are women -- and in 10 countries none are women.
- Around the world there are 100 million 'missing' -- 50 million in India alone -- who would be alive but for infanticide, neglect or sex-selective abortions.
- Around the world, women still earn only around 75 per cent as much as men.
Education - Worldwide, primary school enrolments rose from 80 per cent in 1990 to 84 per cent in 1998.
- Still, of the 680 million children of primary school age, 113 million are not in school -- 97 per cent of them in developing countries.
- Ninety-three countries, with 39 per cent of the world's people, do not have data on trends in primary enrolment.
- Sixty per cent of children not in primary school worldwide are girls.
Since 1975 literacy rates have increased substantially in all developing regions. - Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and the Arab states, despite significant progress, are much further behind, with adult literacy rates of about 60 per cent.
- In the past 25 years literacy rates in low human development countries have doubled -- though only to 50 per cent.
- Still, of the world's estimated 854 million illiterate adults, 544 million are women.
- The gaps are closing in primary and, to a lesser extent, secondary enrolments: 90 countries, with more than 60 per cent of the world's people, have achieved or are on track to achieving gender equality in primary education by 2015 -- and more than 80 in secondary education.
International aid - Only $2 billion of the annual aid from Development Assistance Committee (DAC) countries is directed towards education.
- To achieve the goals for education, this will have to increase by $9-12 billion, from about 3.5 per cent of aid to well over 10 per cent.
Environment Global warming is a universal concern -- and carbon dioxide emissions are one of its main causes. - Such emissions have increased dramatically, to more than 6.6 billion tonnes in 1998, up from 5.3 billion in 1980.
- High-income countries generate a far higher proportion than their share of the world's population.
- More than 250 million people living off the land are directly affected by desertification.
- In addition, the livelihoods of one billion people in more than a 100 countries are at risk. These include many of the world's poorest, most marginalised and politically powerless people.
Conflicts - In the 1990s conflicts between countries killed about 220,000 people, a drop of nearly two-thirds from the 1980s.
- In the 1990s about 3.6 million people died in wars within states, and the number of refugees and internally displaced persons increased 50 per cent.
- The 1990s saw a large decline in deaths from interstate conflicts, to 220,000 people over the decade - down from nearly three times that in the 1980s.
- Half of all civilian war casualties are children, and there are an estimated 300,000 child soldiers worldwide.
- Landmines and unexploded ordnance still heavily affect 90 countries, with 15,000-20,000 mine victims a year.
Human rights - The number of countries ratifying the six main human rights conventions and covenants has increased dramatically since 1990. Ratifications of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) grew from around 90 to nearly 150.
- Genocide occurred in Europe and Africa. 200,000 people were killed in Bosnia in 1992-95 and 500,000 killed in Rwanda in 1994.
- During the 1990s the number of refugees and internally displaced persons grew by 50 per cent.
- At the end of 2000 more than 12 million people were refugees, six million were internally displaced and nearly four million were returning refugees, asylum-seekers or people otherwise of concern to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees -- in all, 50 per cent more than in 1990.
Information Technology - 72 per cent of Internet users live in high-income OECD countries, with 14 per cent of the world's population. Of these 164 million reside in the United States alone.
- The more than 500 million Internet users today are expected to grow to nearly 1 billion by 2005.
International Trade bodies and financial institutions/trade barriers - The World Trade Organisation operates on a one-country, one-vote basis, but most key decisions are made by the leading economic powers in 'green room' meetings.
- The executive directors representing France, Germany, Japan, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and the United States account for 46 per cent of the voting rights in the World Bank and 48 per cent in the International Monetary Fund.
International trade rules have also worked against the economic interests of developing countries and failed to restrain protectionism in industrial countries, especially through antidumping rules and other non-tariff barriers. - On average, industrial country tariffs on imports from developing countries are four times those on imports from other industrial countries.
- The average poor person in a developing country selling into global markets confronts barriers twice as high as the typical worker in industrial countries, where agricultural subsidies alone are about $1 billion a day - more than six times total aid.
- These barriers and subsidies cost developing countries more in lost export opportunities than the $56 billion in aid they receive each year.
(III) India Progress Report: 86.2% of Indians live on $2 a day As far as India's progress towards the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals is concerned, the country is far behind in halving the proportion of people suffering from hunger; on track in female gross primary enrolment ratio as a percentage of male ratio; far behind in female gross secondary enrolment ratio as a percentage of male ratio; lagging behind in reducing under-five mortality rate; on track in providing population with improved water sources. In contrast Sri Lanka with a ranking of 89 has achieved many of the above goals. Poverty
Rapid growth in the two largest countries -- China since the 1970s and India since the late 1980s -- has enabled them to catch up to some extent with rich countries. - India is ranked 55 in the Human Poverty Index.
- The national poverty line for the country for 1987-2000 was 35.0.
- The population below income poverty line living on $1 a day was 44.2 (1983-2000). That living on $2 a day was 86.2 (1983-2000).
Inequality in income or consumption (1997) - The share of income/consumption of the poorest 10 per cent was 3.5 per cent.
- The share of income/consumption of the poorest 20 per cent was 8.1.
- That of the richest 20 per cent is 46.1.
- That of the richest 10 per cent is 33.5.
- Inequality measures for the richest 10 per cent to poorest 10 per cent is 9.5.
- Inequality measures for richest 20 per cent to poorest 20 per cent is 5.7.
Health and sanitation Health
Survival: Progress and setbacks - Life expectancy at birth in 1970-75 was 50.3 years and in 1995-2000 it was 62.3 years.
- Probability at birth of surviving to age 65 for females during 1995-2000 was 64.7 (per cent cohort). For males in 1995-2000 it was 59.9 (per cent cohort).
- Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 (per cent of cohort) in 1995-2000 was 16.7.
- Infant mortality rate per 1000 live births in 1970 was 127, while in 2000 it was 69.
- Under five mortality rate per 1000 live births in 1970 was 202 and in 2000, it was 96.
- Maternal mortality ratio reported per 100,000 live births in 1985-99 was 540.
Crises & challenges - Undernourished people as percentage of total population in 1997/99 was 23.
- Children underweight for age (under age 5) in 1995-2000 was 47%.
- Children under height for age (under age 5) in 1995-2000 was 46%.
- Infants with low birth weight in 1995-2000 was 26%.
- AIDS now infects nearly 4 million people in India, second only to South Africa.
- Adults living with AIDS in the age bracket 15-49 in 2001 was 0.79%.
- Women living with AIDS in the age bracket 15-49 in 2001 numbered 1,500,000.
- Children living with AIDS in the age bracket 0-14 in 2001 numbered 170,000.
- Upon birth, an Indian can expect to live slightly longer -- upto 63.3 years from 62.9 years.
- Malaria cases per 100,000 people in 2000 were 193.
- TB cases per 100,000 people in 1999 were 123.
Commitment to health: access, services and resources - Population using adequate sanitation facilities in 2000 was 31%.
- Population using improved water sources in 2000 was 88%.
- Population with access to essential drugs in 1999 was 0-49%.
- One-year-olds fully immunised against TB in 1999: 68%.
- One-year-olds fully immunised against measles in 1999: 50%.
- Contraceptive prevalence in 1995-2000: 48%.
- Births attended by skilled health staff in 1995-2000: 42%.
- Physicians per 100,000 people in 1990-99: 48.
- Private health expenditure as per cent of GDP in 1998 was 4.2.
Sanitation - Population not using improved water sources: 12% (2000).
Education - Adult literacy rate (age 15 and above) in 2000: 57.2%.
- Combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio in 1999: 55 %.
Commitment to education: public spending - Public education expenditure as percentage of GNP in 1985-87 was 3.2; in 1995-97 too it was 3.2.
- Public education expenditure as percentage of total government expenditure in 1985-87 was 8.5; in 1995-97 it was 11.6.
- Public education expenditure as percentage of all levels for pre and primary education in 1985-86 was 38; in 1995-97 was 39.5.
- Public education expenditure as percentage of all levels for secondary education in 1985-86 was 25.3; in 1995-97 was 26.5.
- Public education expenditure as percentage of all levels for tertiary education in 1985-86 was 15.3; and in 1995-97 was 13.7.
Literacy and enrolment - Adult literacy rate for age 15 and above in 1985 was 45.2%; in 2000 it was 57.2%.
- Youth literacy rate for age 15-24 in 1985 was 60.0%; in 2000 it was 72.6%.
- Net secondary enrolment ratio in1998 was 39%.
Gender inequality in education - India has male literacy rates at least 15 percentage points higher than female rates.
- Adult female literacy rate for age 15 and above in 2000 was 45.4%.
- Adult female literacy rate in 2000 was 66% of male rates.
- Youth female literacy rate for age 15-24 for 2000 was 64.8%.
- Youth female literacy rate in 2000 was 81% of the male rate.
- The gender gap in education is much larger for poor households. One cause of such gaps is that public spending on education is skewed towards the rich. In India the gender gap in enrolment is only three percentage points in the richest households, but 34 points in the poorest.
Gender - India was ranked 105 in the gender-related development index.
- Life expectancy at birth in 2000 for females was 63.8 years; for males: 62.8.
- Adult literacy rate age 15 and above in 2000 for females was 45.4%; for males 68.4%.
- Combined primary, secondary, tertiary gross enrolment rate in 1999 for females was 49%; for males, 62%.
- A recent survey in India found 10,000 cases of female infanticide a year.
- A study (Hunger Project 2002) of a clinic in Bombay found that 7,999 of 8,000 aborted foetuses were female.
- Estimated earned income (PPP US $) in 2000 for females was 1267; for males, 3383.
- Seats held by women in parliament as percentage of total: 8.9.
Gender inequality in economic activity - Female economic activity rate (age 15 and above) in 2000 was 42.1%.
- Female economic activity rate (age 15 and above) as percentage of male rate in 2000: 50%.
Gender, work burden and time allocation - Burden of work in 2000 -- total work time (minutes per day), for females was 457; for males 391; and for females as percentage of males: 117.
Demographic trends - Total population in millions in 1975 was 620.7; this grew to 1,008.9 in 2000; and is projected to grow to 1,230.5 in 2015.
- Annual population growth rate in 1975-2000 was 1.9%; for 2000-15 projections are 1.3%.
- Urban population as percentage of total in 1975 was 21.3%; in 2000 was 27.7%; in 2015 projected as 32.2%.
- Population under age 15 as percentage of total in 2000 was 33.5%; in 2015 projected as 26.9%.
- Population aged 65 and above as percentage of total in 2000 was 5.0%; in 2015 projected as 6.4%.
- Total fertility rate per woman in 1970-75 was 5.4%; for 1995-2000 was 3.3%.
Energy and the environment - Traditional fuel consumption as percentage of total energy use in 1997 was 20.7.
- Electricity consumption per capita (kilowatt-hours) in 1980 was 130; in 1999 it was 379.
- Carbon dioxide emissions per capita metric tonnes in 1980 was 0.5; in 1998 it was 1.1.
- Carbon dioxide emissions, as a share of world total was 4.4%.
Flow of aid - Official Development Assistance (ODA) (net disbursements) received in 2000 was US$ 1,487.2 million.
Priorities in public spending - Public expenditure on education as percentage of GNP in 1985-87 was 3.2%; in 1995-97 was 3.2%.
- Public expenditure on health as percentage of GDP in 1990 was 0.9%.
- Military expenditure as percentage of GDP in 1990 was 2.7; in 2000 it was 2.4%.
Technology: Diffusion and creation - Telephone mainlines per 1000 people in 1990 was 6; in 2000, 32.
- Cellular mobile subscribers per 1000 people in 2000 was 33.
- Patents granted to residents per million people in 1998 was 1.
- Research and development (R&D) expenditures as percentage of GNP in 1990-2000 was 0.6.
The complete report can be downloaded at http://www.undp.org/hdr2002/ InfoChange News & Features, August 2002
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